Fall of Mary Stuart

Mary now made her first mistake. As a means toward the reconversion of her kingdom, she married, on July 29, 1565, her cousin Henry, Lord Darnley, son of the earl of Lennox and a claimant of the Scottish throne.' Darnley was a Catholic, by education at least, and an indolent, resentful youth. Owing to the fact that they were so closely related, Darnley and Mary were obliged to get a dispensation from the pope for their marriage. Curiously enough, this dispensation was not received until after the marriage ceremony had been actually performed. The marriage renewed the civil war in Scotland, for the Protestant lords, Moray, the Hamiltons, and the Argyles, saw in it the loss of their power. On the other hand, Mary's refusal to grant Darnley royal privileges led to a quarrel between the royal pair and to the murder, in March, 1566, of Rizzio, Mary's secretary, of whom Darnley was jealous. The birth and baptism of a son, James VI of Scotland and of England, December 17, 1566, proved to be the last and crowning triumph of Mary's career. Conspiracies were already forming against Darnley, and how far Mary was privy to them is the great mystery of her life. That she knew of the existence of a plot is proved; but that she actually cooperated, either by encouragement or aid, has not been demonstrated. On February 9-10,1567, Kirk O'Field, the house in which Darnley was staying in Edinburgh, was blown up, and Darnley was found dead in an adjoining field. The crime was committed by the earl of Bothwell, a rough border noble, with whom Mary was in love and whom she afterward married. Proof of the queen's guilt rests upon the Casket Letters, averred to have been written to Bothwell by Mary just before the murder; but the most incriminating portions of these letters have been shown to be probable forgeries.

Whether guilty or not, Mary from that day lost all influence in Scotland. After a defeat at Carberry Hill she was shut up in Lochleven Castle, whence escaping she sought the protection of Elizabeth. A commission appointed to investigate her guilt returned a verdict of not guilty; but Mary remained in England virtually a prisoner for eighteen years, a constant source of embarrassment to the English queen and of danger to Elizabeth's government.

England s Security and Prosperity in 1568

Elizabeth's government had now passed the first great crisis in its history and for the moment at least was secure from outside invasion. The cause of Mary Stuart was discredited in Scotland and the queen herself was in the hands of Elizabeth in England. A rebellious Irish chief of Ulster, Shane O'Neil, who for seventeen years had resisted the authority of the English government and had aided the Catholic cause, was at length ruined by his enemies, the O'Donnells, and assassinated in 1567 by the Scots of Antrim. Both France and Spain were too deeply involved in religious and civil war to think of interfering in England; for the Catholics and Huguenots had resumed their strife in 1567, and the Netherlands, on account of the policy of the Duke of Alba, who became regent of the country the same year, were in full revolt against the authority of the Spanish king and were about to enter on their war for independence. France and Spain also were at odds with each other because Spanish settlers, in 1565, had destroyed a French colony established near St. Augustine in Florida.

At home conditions were equally favorable. Cecil had said at the beginning of the reign that "war is the curse and peace the blessing of God upon a nation; a realm gaineth more by one year's peace than by ten years war," and the first ten years of Elizabeth's reign had proved the truth of his saying. The prosperity of the English people was largely due to the growth of trade and commerce, which had suffered under Edward VI and Mary, owing to the debasement of the currency and the neglect of English shipping. Cecil had begun at once to decry base money" and to provide for the reform of the currency. In 1560 a proclamation had been issued, calling in all the old coins, Spanish gold and silver pieces, the base shillings and sixpences, and promising to exchange them for new ones. Pure English coins had been issued, both gold and silver, and were gradually put into circulation. Merchants could tell once more what the value of the coins was, and were not afraid of further debasement. The amount of silver was increased as the wealth of the South American mines, which had been brought to Spain and spread through Europe by the Spanish wars, began to pour into England. Thus, money became better and more plenty, prices rose evenly and gradually, and the merchants and traders, who were no longer hampered by a debased currency, began to grow rich. Money was collected into the form of capital, and new undertakings were started in trade, industry, and commerce.

At the same time Cecil encouraged artisans from other countries, Flemings driven from Flanders and Huguenots from France, to settle in England, and he made every effort to establish the particular handicrafts in which they excelled. He even settled a company of cloth workers in his own town of Stamford, and sought by every means in his power to advance England's position as a manufacturing land.

The English government paid especial attention to shipping, and by several enactments gave trade advantages to Englishmen, inciting them to build ships and to do the carrying trade for themselves. Elizabeth confirmed the charters of the Merchant Adventurers, and in 1564 formally incorporated the company. Thus England was able to injure Philip not only by arms and diplomacy, but also by measures affecting the trade of Flanders, which in the end practically ruined the city of Antwerp. In truth, we can understand Philip's attitude toward England from 1558 to 1588 better by studying trade and commerce than we can by studying diplomacy.

Lastly, Cecil strengthened the queen's navy, got fighting men ready for sea service, built fortresses, and experimented with the making of brass cannon. Thus while encouraging the building of merchantmen and giving England a monopoly of shipping, he was laying the foundations of England's navy and was preparing the way for England's future greatness as mistress of the seas.