Scutage

To the same end Henry encouraged a practice that had grown up, affecting the most important of the feudal obligations, the duty of military service. It will be remembered that William the Conqueror had required of his tenants in-chief not only personal service, but also a certain number of knights for the feudal army. The king's great vassals generally got these knights by letting out a portion of the land which they held of the king to sub-vassals, on condition that the latter follow them when required in the service of the king. This sub-letting of land was called subinfeudation, and was begun soon after the Conquest.

But sometimes the great vassals were not able or did not wish to subinfeudate enough land to meet their obligation to the king, and had to hire extra knights to make up the number required of them. This practice of hiring soldiers led many of the knights, who held land of a tenant-in-chief on condition of military service, to desire to commute that service for a money payment to be made directly to the king. This payment by the knight of money in lieu of military service was called scutage. It was wholly contrary to feudal principle, which demanded in every case a personal service, and it is interesting to note that the tenants-in-chief themselves were never allowed to pay scutage, but were always compelled to scutage, or, in case of refusal, to pay a heavy fine.

However, the king favored the payment by the knights because the feudal army could not be compelled to serve for more than forty days at a time, and was always more or less unreliable. Thus in 1156, on the occasion of the Welsh war, Henry II accepted a scutage from the tenants of the ecclesiastical lords; and in 1159, when about to undertake an expedition to Toulouse, extended the custom to the tenants of the lay lands also.

The growth of the practice soon altered the character of the knights, who henceforth ceased to be soldiers and became landowners and farmers, devoting themselves to agriculture and to the affairs of the shire and the shire court. Thus scutage not only broke down the feudal military system, but it also led to the rise of a new class of small landowners who were to play a very important part in English history as knights of the shire.

At this juncture Henry was interrupted in his work by a famous quarrel with the church, which illustrates his determination to make the state supreme in ecclesiastical matters also.

Henry's Quarrel with the Church: Thomas a Becket

From 1154 to 1163 Henry had met with no serious obstacles in the task of governing England, but in the latter year trouble arose with the church in the person of Thomas a Becket. Becket was born in 1117, and when twenty-one years of age entered the service of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury. There he applied himself to the study of canon law, newly introduced into England. He rose rapidly in preferment, and when Henry II came to the throne, was made chancellor of England. In this position he served his king loyally, even against the clergy themselves. His life became luxurious. He surrounded himself with courtiers, and entertained sumptuously, drawing his revenues from the numerous benefices that, he held. He was a minister after the heart of the king.

On the death of Theobald, in 1161, Henry wished to make Becket primate of England. Becket resisted, knowing that as archbishop he must serve, not the king, but the pope, the head of the church. Henry persisted. In 1162 he forced Becket's election as archbishop of Canterbury, believing that he would find in him as faithful an ally as William I had found in Lanfranc. But he made a grievous mistake. No sooner had Becket taken the oath of office than his whole life changed. He threw off pride and luxury, and became humble and austere, giving up his former companions and surrounding himself with studious and pious ecclesiastics. The effect of this soon appeared in his relations with the king. Becket had resigned his chancellorship on becoming archbishop, and was now determined to defend at every point the entire independence of the clergy.